HSC Biology

  • Core
    • Maintaining a balance
      • Temperature range
        • 1.1 identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a simple model to describe their specificity on substrates
        • 1.2 identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance
        • 1.3 explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency
        • 1.4 describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
        • 1.5 explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:
        • 1.6 outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental changes
        • 1.7 identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the narrow limits for individual species
        • 1.8 compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient temperature and explain how these responses assist temperature regulation
        • 1.9 identify some responses of plants to temperature change
        • 1.10 identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to test the effect of:
        • 1.11 gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism
        • 1.12 analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and responses that have occurred in Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation
      • A watery medium
        • 2.1 identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood:
        • 2.2 explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin
        • 2.3 compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function
        • 2.4 describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur
        • 2.5 outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential
        • 2.6 describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissue
        • 2.7 perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water
        • 2.8 perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to gather information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of each
        • 2.9 analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are used
        • 2.10 analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from donated blood and discuss the uses of these products
        • 2.11 analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why such research is needed
        • 2.12 choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather first-hand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue
      • Gases, water and waste products
        • 3.1 explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow range for optimal function
        • 3.2 explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity
        • 3.3 identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals
        • 3.4 explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes
        • 3.5 distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian kidney
        • 3.6 explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid composition
        • 3.7 outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone), in the regulation of water and salt levels in blood
        • 3.8 define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations
        • 3.9 describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising water loss
        • 3.10 perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by dissection, use of a model or visual resource and identify the regions involved in the excretion of waste products
        • 3.11 gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney
        • 3.12 present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people who cannot secrete aldosterone
        • 3.13 analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish
        • 3.14 use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals
        • 3.15 process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline environments
        • 3.16 process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline environments
    • Blueprint of life
      • Evidence of evolution
        • 1.1 outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals of:
        • 1.2 describe, using specific examples, how the theory of evolution is supported by the following areas of study:
        • 1.3 explain how Darwin/Wallace’s theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation accounts for divergent evolution and convergent evolution
        • 1.4 plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to model natural selection
        • 1.5 analyse information from secondary sources to prepare a case study to show how an environmental change can lead to changes in a species
        • 1.6 perform a first-hand investigation or gather information from secondary sources (including photographs/ diagrams/models) to observe, analyse and compare the structure of a range of vertebrate forelimbs
        • 1.7 use available evidence to analyse, using a named example, how advances in technology have changed scientific thinking about evolutionary relationships
      • The work of Gregor Mendel
        • 2.1 outline the experiments carried out by Gregor Mendel
        • 2.2 describe the aspects of the experimental techniques used by Mendel that led to his success
        • 2.3 describe outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving simple dominance using Mendel’s explanations
        • 2.4 distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes in monohybrid crosses
        • 2.5 distinguish between the terms allele and gene, using examples
        • 2.6 explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles and phenotype using examples
        • 2.7 outline the reasons why the importance of Mendel’s work was not recognised until some time after it was published
        • 2.8 perform an investigation to construct pedigrees or family trees, trace the inheritance of selected characteristics and discuss their current use
        • 2.9 solve problems involving monohybrid crosses using Punnett squares or other appropriate techniques
        • 2.10 process information from secondary sources to describe an example of hybridisation within a species and explain the purpose of this hybridisation
      • Chromosomal structure
        • 3.1 outline the roles of Sutton and Boveri in identifying the importance of chromosomes
        • 3.2 describe the chemical nature of chromosomes and genes
        • 3.3 identify that DNA is a double-stranded molecule twisted into a helix with each strand, comprised of a sugar-phosphate backbone and attached bases, adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G), connected to a complementary strand by pairing the bases, A-T and G-C
        • 3.4 explain the relationship between the structure and behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis and the inheritance of genes
        • 3.5 explain the role of gamete formation and sexual reproduction in variability of offspring
        • 3.6 describe the inheritance of sex-linked genes, and genes that exhibit co-dominance and explain why these do not produce simple Mendelian ratios
        • 3.7 describe the work of Morgan that led to the identification of sex linkage
        • 3.8 explain the relationship between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes and the resulting phenotypes in examples of codominance
        • 3.9 outline ways in which the environment may affect the expression of a gene in an individual
        • 3.10 process information from secondary sources to construct a model that demonstrates meiosis and the processes of crossing over, segregation of chromosomes and the production of haploid gametes
        • 3.11 solve problems involving co-dominance and sex linkage
        • 3.12 identify data sources and perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of the environment on phenotype
      • The structure of DNA
        • 4.1 describe the process of DNA replication and explain its significance
        • 4.2 outline, using a simple model, the process by which DNA controls the production of polypeptides
        • 4.3 explain the relationship between proteins and polypeptides
        • 4.4 explain how mutations in DNA may lead to the generation of new alleles
        • 4.5 discuss evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation
        • 4.6 explain how an understanding of the source of variation in organisms has provided support for Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
        • 4.7 describe the concept of punctuated equilibrium in evolution and how it differs from the gradual process proposed by Darwin
        • 4.8 perform a first-hand investigation or process information from secondary sources to develop a simple model for polypeptide synthesis
        • 4.9 analyse information from secondary sources to outline the evidence that led to Beadle and Tatum’s ‘one gene – one protein’ hypothesis and to explain why this was altered to the ‘one gene – one polypeptide’ hypothesis
        • 4.10 process information to construct a flow chart that shows that changes in DNA sequences can result in changes in cell activity
        • 4.11 process and analyse information from secondary sources to explain a modern example of ‘natural’ selection
        • 4.12 process information from secondary sources to describe and analyse the relative importance of the work of:
      • Current reproductive technologies
        • 5.1 identify how the following current reproductive techniques may alter the genetic composition of a population:
        • 5.2 outline the processes used to produce transgenic species and include examples of this process and reasons for its use
        • 5.3 discuss the potential impact of the use of reproduction technologies on the genetic diversity of species using a named plant and animal example that have been genetically altered
        • 5.4 process information from secondary sources to describe a methodology used in cloning
        • 5.5 analyse information from secondary sources to identify examples of the use of transgenic species and use available evidence to debate the ethical issues arising from the development and use of transgenic species
    • The search for better health
      • What is a healthy organism?
        • 1.1 discuss the difficulties of defining the terms ‘health’ and ‘disease’
        • 1.2 outline how the function of genes, mitosis, cell differentiation and specialisation assist in the maintenance of health
        • 1.3 use available evidence to analyse the links between gene expression and maintenance and repair of body tissues
      • Infectious and non-infectious diseases
        • 2.1 distinguish between infectious and non-infectious disease
        • 2.2 explain why cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene practices assist in control of disease
        • 2.3 identify the conditions under which an organism is described as a pathogen.
        • 2.4 identify data sources, plan and choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to identify microbes in food or in water
        • 2.5 gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe ways in which drinking water can be treated and use available evidence to explain how these methods reduce the risk of infection from pathogens.
      • Identifying microbes that cause disease
        • 3.1 describe the contribution of Pasteur and Koch to our understanding of infectious diseases
        • 3.2 distinguish between:
        • 3.3 identify the role of antibiotics in the management of infectious disease
        • 3.4 perform an investigation to model Pasteur’s experiment to identify the role of microbes in decay
        • 3.5 gather and process information to trace the historical development of our understanding of the cause and prevention of malaria
        • 3.6 identify data sources, gather process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe one named infectious disease in terms of its:
        • 3.7 process information from secondary sources to discuss problems relating to antibiotic resistance
      • Defence against disease
        • 4.1 identify defence barriers to prevent entry of pathogens in humans: skin mucous membranes cilia chemical barriers other body secretions
        • 4.2 identify antigens as molecules that trigger the immune response
        • 4.3 explain why organ transplants should trigger an immune response
        • 4.4 identify defence adaptations, including: inflammation response phagocytosis lymph system cell death to seal off pathogen
        • 4.5 gather, process and present information from secondary sources to show how a named disease results from an imbalance of microflora in humans
      • The immune response
        • 5.1 identify the components of the immune response:
        • 5.2 describe and explain the immune response in the human body in terms of:
        • 5.3 outline the way in which vaccinations prevent infection
        • 5.4 outline the reasons for the suppression of the immune response in organ transplant patients.
        • 5.5 process, analyse and present information from secondary sources to evaluate the effectiveness of vaccination programs in preventing the spread and occurrence of once common diseases, including small pox, diphtheria and polio
      • Epidemiological studies
        • 6.1 identify and describe the main features of epidemiology using lung cancer as an example
        • 6.2 identify causes of non-infectious disease using an example from each of the following categories: inherited diseases nutritional deficiencies environmental diseases
        • 6.3 gather, process and analyse information to identify the cause and effect relationship of smoking and lung cancer
        • 6.4 identify data sources, plan and perform a first-hand investigation or gather information from secondary sources to analyse and present information about the occurrence, symptoms, cause, treatment/management of a named non-infectious disease
      • Modern Strategies
        • 7.1 discuss the role of quarantine in preventing the spread of disease, plants and animals into Australia or across regions of Australia
        • 7.2 explain how one of the following strategies has controlled and/or prevented disease: public health programs pesticides genetic engineering to produce disease resistant plants and animals
        • 7.3 perform an investigation to examine plant shoots and leaves and gather first-hand information of evidence of pathogens and insect pests
        • 7.4 process and analyse information from secondary sources to evaluate the effectiveness of quarantine in preventing the spread of plant and animal disease into Australia or across regions of Australia
        • 7.5 gather and process information and use available evidence to discuss the changing methods of dealing with plant and animal diseases, including the shift in emphasis from treatment and control to management or prevention of disease
  • Options
    • Communication
      • Detecting stimuli
        • 1.1 identify the role of receptors in detecting stimuli
        • 1.2 explain that the response to a stimulus involves: stimulus receptor messenger response
        • 1.3 identify data sources, gather and process information from secondary sources to identify the range of senses involved in communication
      • Visual Communication
        • 2.1 describe the anatomy and function of the human eye, including the: conjunctiva cornea sclera choroid retina iris lens aqueous and vitreous humor ciliary body optic nerve
        • 2.2 identify the limited range of wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum detected by humans and compare this range with those of other vertebrates and invertebrates
        • 2.3 plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation of a mammalian eye to gather first-hand data to relate structures to functions
        • 2.4 use available evidence to suggest reasons for the differences in range of electromagnetic radiation detected by humans and other animals
      • Refraction of light in the eye
        • 3.1 identify the conditions under which refraction of light occurs
        • 3.2 identify the cornea, aqueous humor, lens and vitreous humor as refractive media
        • 3.3 identify accommodation as the focusing on objects at different distances, describe its achievement through the change in strength of the lens and explain its importance
        • 3.4 compare the change in the refractive power of the lens from rest to maximum accommodation
        • 3.5 distinguish between myopia and hyperopia and outline how technologies can be used to correct these conditions
        • 3.6 explain how the production of two different images of a view can result in depth perception
        • 3.7 plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to model the process of accommodation by passing rays of light through convex lenses of different focal lengths
        • 3.8 analyse information from secondary sources to describe changes in the shape of the eye’s lens when focusing on near and far objects
        • 3.9 process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe cataracts and the technology that can be used to prevent blindness from cataracts to discuss the implications of this technology for society
      • The retina
        • 4.1 identify photoreceptor cells as those containing light sensitive pigments and explain that these cells convert light images into electrochemical signals that the brain can interpret
        • 4.2 describe the differences in distribution, structure and function of the photoreceptor cells in the human eye
        • 4.3 outline the role of rhodopsins in rods
        • 4.4 identify that there are three types of cones, each containing a separate pigment sensitive to either blue, red or green light
        • 4.5 explain that colour blindness in humans results from the lack of one or more of the colour sensitive pigments in the cones
        • 4.6 process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare and describe the nature of photoreceptor cells in mammals, insects and in simple light receptors in one other animal
        • 4.7 process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe and analyse the use of colour for communication in animals and relate this to the occurrence of colour vision in animals
      • Sound communication
        • 5.1 explain why sound is a useful and versatile form of communication
        • 5.2 explain that sound is produced by vibrating objects and that the frequency of the sound is the same as the frequency of the vibration of the source of the sound
        • 5.3 outline the structure of the human larynx and the associated structures that assist the production of sound
        • 5.4 plan and perform a first-hand investigation to gather data to identify the relationship between wave-length frequency and pitch of a sound
        • 5.5 gather and process information from secondary sources to outline and compare some of the structures used by animals to produce sound
    • Biotechnology
      • Origins of biotechnology
        • 1.1 describe the origins of biotechnology in early societies who collected seeds of wild plants and domesticated some species of wild animals
        • 1.2 explain why the collection of seeds and breeding of animals with desired characteristics, could be described as early biotechnology
        • 1.3 describe the changes in one group of animals and one group of plants as a result of artificial selection of characteristics suitable for agricultural stock
        • 1.4 use available evidence to describe the changes in a species of grain or animal as a result of domestication and agricultural processes
        • 1.5 process information to outline an ancient Aboriginal use of biotechnology
      • Biotechnological practices
        • 2.1 outline the key events that led to the use of biotechnological practices, including: yeast in the manufacture of bread yeast and fermentation for alcohol production the use of other micro-organism for the manufacture of yoghurt and cheeses
        • 2.2 plan, choose equipment or resources, perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the use of fermentation processes in bread or alcohol production
      • Cell biochemistry and industrial fermentation procedures
        • 3.1 describe the expansion of fermentation since the early 18th century to include the production of several organic compounds, including glycerol, lactic acid, citric acid and yeast biomass for baker’s yeast
        • 3.2 describe strain isolation methods developed in the 1940s
        • 3.3 describe, using a specific example, the benefits of strain isolation methods used in biotechnology in the 20th century
        • 3.4 identify that developments in the 1950s led to biotransformation technologies that could produce required organic compounds such as cortisone and sex hormones
        • 3.5 gather and process information from secondary sources to: identify and describe a named industrial fermentation process identify the micro-organism used in the fermentation and the products of the fermentation outline the use of the product of the fermentation process use available evidence to assess the impact of the use of the fermentation product on society at the time of its introduction
        • 3.6 process and analyse information from secondary sources to demonstrate how changes in technology and scientific knowledge have modified traditional uses of biotechnology, such as fermentation
      • Cell chemistry
        • 4.1 outline, simply, the steps in the synthesis of protein in the cell, including: the difference between DNA and RNA the production of messenger RNA the role of transfer RNA the formation of the polypeptide chain(s) the formation of the protein from polypeptide chains
        • 4.2 plan and perform a first-hand investigation to test the conditions that influence the rate of enzyme activity
    • Genetics: the code broken?
      • Gene structure
        • 1.1 describe the processes involved in the transfer of information from DNA through RNA to the production of a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
        • 1.2 choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to construct a model of DNA
        • 1.3 process information from secondary data to outline the current understanding of gene expression
      • Variability within a trait
        • 2.1 give examples of characteristics determined by multiple alleles in an organism other than humans
        • 2.2 compare the inheritance of the ABO and Rhesus blood groups
        • 2.3 define what is meant by polygenic inheritance and describe one example of polygenic inheritance in humans or another organism.
        • 2.4 outline the use of highly variable genes for DNA fingerprinting of forensic samples, for paternity testing and for determining the pedigree of animals
        • 2.5 solve problems to predict the inheritance patterns of ABO blood groups and the Rhesus factor
        • 2.6 process information from secondary sources to identify and describe one example of polygenic inheritance
      • Inheritance of genes
        • 3.1 use the terms ‘diploid’ and ‘haploid’ to describe somatic and gametic cells
        • 3.2 describe outcomes of dihybrid crosses involving simple dominance using Mendel’s explanations
        • 3.3 predict the difference in inheritance patterns if two genes are linked
        • 3.4 explain how cross-breeding experiments can identify the relative position of linked genes
        • 3.5 discuss the role of chromosome mapping in identifying relationships between species
        • 3.6 process information from secondary sources to analyse the outcome of dihybrid crosses when both traits are inherited independently and when they are linked
        • 3.7 perform a first-hand investigation to model linkage
      • The Human Genome Project
        • 4.1 discuss the benefits of the Human Genome Project
        • 4.2 describe and explain the limitations of data obtained from the Human Genome Project
        • 4.3 outline the procedure to produce recombinant DNA
        • 4.4 explain how the use of recombinant DNA technology can identify the position of a gene on a chromosome
        • 4.5 process information from secondary sources to assess the reasons why the Human Genome Project could not be achieved by studying linkage maps
      • Gene therapy
        • 5.1 describe current use of gene therapy for an identified disease
        • 5.2 process and analyse information from secondary sources to identify a current use of gene therapy to manage a genetic disease, a named form of cancer or AIDS
      • Mechanisms of genetic change
        • 6.1 distinguish between mutations of chromosomes, including rearrangements changes in chromosome number, including trisomy, and polyploidy and mutations of genes, including base substitution frameshift
        • 6.2 outline the ability of DNA to repair itself
        • 6.3 describe the way in which transposable genetic elements operate and discuss their impact on the genome
        • 6.4 distinguish between germ line and somatic mutations in terms of their effect on species
        • 6.5 process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe the effect of one named and described genetic mutation on human health
      • Selective breeding and gene cloning
        • 7.1 explain, using an appropriate example from agriculture, why selective breeding has been practiced
        • 7.2 describe what is meant by ‘gene cloning’ and give examples of the uses of gene cloning
        • 7.3 distinguish between gene cloning and whole organism cloning in terms of the processes and products
        • 7.4 discuss a use of cloning in animals or plants that has possible benefits to humans
        • 7.5 analyse and present information from secondary sources to trace the history of the selective breeding of one species for agricultural purposes and use available evidence to describe the series of changes that have occurred in the species as a result of this selective breeding
        • 7.6 identify data sources, choose equipment or resources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe the processes used in the cloning of an animal and analyse the methodology to identify ways in which scientists could verify that the animal produced was a clone
      • The timing of gene expression
        • 8.1 identify the role of genes in embryonic development
        • 8.2 summarise the role of gene cascades determining limb formation in birds and mammals
        • 8.3 describe the evidence which indicates the presence of ancestral vertebrate homologues in lower animal classes
        • 8.4 discuss the evidence available from current research about the evolution of genes and their actions
        • 8.5 identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to assess the evidence that analysis of genes provides for evolutionary relationships
      • The human story
        • Classification
          • 1.1 outline the general classification hierarchy from phylum to species
          • 1.2 define the term species and outline criteria used to identify a species
          • 1.3 outline features that classify humans as: mammal primate hominid hominin
          • 1.4 discuss the use of the terms hominin and hominid in terms of the arbitrary nature of classification systems
          • 1.5 describe primate characteristics, including: hand/foot structure and function, including opposable thumb or toe skull shape and function brain size relative to body size arrangement of the vertebral column to the degree of upright stance vision, including degree of stereoscopic vision, colour vision reproductive features, including single live young and relatively long gestation parenting and group bonding
          • 1.6 describe primate characteristics in: prosimians new and old world monkeys apes humans
          • 1.7 identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to illustrate the classification process by identifying features of humans that classifies them as: Animal Chordate Mammal Primate Hominid Homo Homo sapiens
          • 1.7 identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to illustrate the classification process by identifying features of humans that classifies them as: Animal Chordate Mammal Primate Hominid Homo Homo sapiens
          • 1.8 process information to summarise and analyse the similarities and differences between prosimians, monkeys, apes and humans
          • 1.9 analyse information and use available evidence to identify technological advances and resulting new information that have changed scientists’ opinions about the classification of primates
        • Biological evidence for human evolution
          • 2.1 outline the conditions under which fossils may form
          • 2.2 relate the age of the Earth to the way in which geological time is described
          • 2.3 distinguish between and describe some relative and absolute techniques used for dating fossils
          • 2.4 describe relative dating techniques using fossil sequence in strata
          • 2.5 discuss the difficulty of interpreting the past from the fossil record alone, including: conflicting dates based on different technologies the paucity of the fossil record different interpretations of the same evidence
          • 2.6 compare living primates to hypothesise about relationships between groups of primates using evidence from: karyotype analysis DNA DNA hybridisation comparison of haemoglobins DNA sequencing mitochondrial DNA as a molecular clock
          • 2.7 process and analyse information from secondary sources to model karyotype analysis
          • 2.8 process information from secondary sources to model DNA–DNA hybridisation in order to demonstrate its use in determining relationships between organisms
          • 2.9 identify data sources, gather, process and present information from secondary sources about the maternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA and its importance in tracing human evolution
        • The hominid debate
          • 3.1 examine at least two alternative views of human evolutionary relationships using the same fossil evidence, including: Ardipithecus ramidus (Australopithecus ramidus) Australopithecus afarensis Paranthropus robustus (Australopithecus robustus) Paranthropus boisei (Australopithecus boisei) Australopithecus africanus Homo habilis Homo ergaster Homo erectus Homo heidelbergensis Homo neanderthalensis, Homo sapiens
          • 3.2 compare the above species, including comparisons of: body structure cranial capacity fossil ages and regional locations cranial capacity inferred culture
          • 3.3 outline and examine the evidence for the pattern of human migration based on: the ‘Out of Africa’ model the theory of regional continuity (multi-regional hypothesis
          • 3.4 gather, process, present and analyse information to provide an overview of the similarities and differences of any two species used in tracing evolutionary relationships
          • 3.5 process secondary information and use available evidence to assess the contribution of one of the following to our increased understanding of human evolution: the Leakey family Johanson Broom Tobias Dart Goodall
          • 3.6 gather and process information from secondary sources to analyse and evaluate the evidence for two different models of human evolution
        • Human migration
          • 4.1 outline the mechanisms that led to human diversity
          • 4.2 explain the differences between polymorphism and clinal gradation using at least one appropriate example from human phenotypes
          • 4.3 gather and process information from secondary sources to describe two examples of polymorphism in humans and analyse the evolutionary significance of the phenotypes displayed
        • Cultural development
          • 5.1 describe the cultural changes that occurred as humans developed into efficient hunters in organised cooperative groups
          • 5.2 discuss possible impacts of this cultural development
          • 5.3 process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare humans with other primates in terms of: care of young length of juvenile stage development of, and size of, social groups the development and use of tools communication systems and assess the evolutionary significance of the similarities and differences identified
        • Current and future trends
          • 6.1 analyse the possible effects on human evolution of the following factors: increased population mobility modern medicine genetic engineering
          • 6.2 gather, process, present and analyse information from secondary sources to account for changes in human population numbers in the last 10 000 years and to discuss the potential impact of named examples of modern technologies on future human populations
          • 6.3 process information from secondary sources to outline the purpose of the Human Genome Project and briefly discuss its implications
    • Biochemistry
      • Why study photosynthesis?
        • 1.1 discuss reasons for studying photosynthesis, including: its production of food resources and the need to increase crop yields understanding of photosynthesis may lead to better methods of harvesting solar energy photosynthesis can provide raw materials for a range of human needs the importance of reducing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere the importance of generating oxygen
        • 1.2 gather, process and summarise information from secondary sources to identify the products of photosynthesis and describe the function of these compounds in living organisms
        • 1.3 analyse information from secondary sources to discuss and evaluate the potential uses of photosynthesis in replacing at least three named materials presently obtained from other non-renewable resources
      • Determining a basic equation for photosynthesis
        • 2.1 outline the progress that occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries towards understanding plant growth by identifying: the observation of van Helmont that soil was not primarily responsible for a plants change in mass as it grew Stephen Hales’ proposal that plants extract some of their matter from air the work of Priestley in identifying that plants could ‘restore the air’ used by a candle and his subsequent discovery of oxygen Ingen-Housz’s demonstration of the importance of sunlight for oxygen production by plants Senebier’s demonstration of the use of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis Saussure’s conclusion that water was also necessary for photosynthesis.
        • 2.2 explain that, building on the evidence from earlier investigations, Mayer concluded that plants convert light energy to chemical energy
        • 2.3 identify that Blackman and Mathgel hypothesised that photosynthesis was a two step process
        • 2.4 identify data sources, plan and choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to design experiments that could test the observations of one of: van Helmont Hales Priestley Ingen-Housz Senebier Saussure
        • 2.5 gather and process information from secondary sources to identify and describe relevant modern technologies not available to the above people that would have assisted them in their investigations
        • 2.6 gather and process information from secondary sources to identify observations and conclusions from the observations that led to the hypothesis of Blackman and Mathgel
      • The discovery of chloroplasts as the site of photosynthesis
        • 3.1 explain that Sachs proved that chlorophyll is located in special bodies within plant cells and relate his finding to the site where glucose is made
        • 3.2 describe homogenisation as a process that breaks up cells and allows study of cell fractions, suspensions and solutions
        • 3.3 outline the role of centrifugation in removing cell debris and sedimenting cell organelles, such as chloroplasts
        • 3.4 outline the discoveries of Englemann and explain why Englemann’s work led to the description of the action spectrum of photosynthesis
        • 3.5 explain how the role of pigments, other than chlorophyll, in photosynthesis was inferred
        • 3.6 identify data sources, plan and choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather data to determine the effect of light intensity and temperature on gas production in a suitable pond weed
        • 3.7 gather information from secondary sources to produce a time-line indicating improvements in microscopy that would have assisted Englemann in his work with Spirogyra
        • 3.8 process information from secondary sources to outline the importance of Tswett’s invention of chromatography for the separation of leaf pigments
        • 3.9 perform a first-hand investigation to: extract the mixture of pigments from leaves examine the absorption spectrum of these pigments separate the pigments using chromatography
      • The light reaction
        • 4.1 describe and discuss the importance of Van Neil’s hypothesis that water was the source of oxygen given out in photosynthesis
        • 4.2 outline the classic experiments of Emerson and Arnold and their interpretation by Gaffron and Wahl that led to the hypothesis of a photosynthetic unit consisting of chlorophyll and photoenzyme molecules
        • 4.3 identify the light dependent reaction as that which traps light energy and coverts it to chemical energy stored in ATP
        • 4.4 identify the role of chlorophylls in the light reactions
        • 4.5 explain the significance of the difference in function of photosystems I and II
        • 4.6 identify the role of the coenzymes ADP and NADP in the light reactions
        • 4.7 present information that describes the repetitive flash technique first used by Emerson and Wahl and account for its subsequent importance in the study of photosynthesis
        • 4.8 gather and process information from secondary sources to trace the light dependent reaction of photosynthesis on a suitable biochemical pathways flow chart
      • Using isotopes to prove that water is split in photosynthesis
        • 5.1 explain why the tracking of biochemical reactions is difficult
        • 5.2 identify that isotopes of some elements may be unstable and emit radiation
        • 5.3 define what is meant by the half-life of an isotope and explain how this would affect its use in biochemistry
        • 5.4 outline the evidence provided by: Hill and Scarisbruck Ruben to confirm that the oxygen released by photosynthesis originated from water
        • 5.5 gather and process information from secondary sources to outline and compare some of the structures used by animals to produce sound
      • Using isotopes to prove carbon dioxide is used in the light independent reaction
        • 6.1 identify that Kamen and Ruben discovered C14 and demonstrated that radioactive carbon dioxide could be used to investigate the chemical transformations of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis in 1940
        • 6.2 describe the experiments, using paper chromatography, that Calvin carried out to deduce the products of photosynthesis
        • 6.3 outline the main steps of the Calvin cycle as: the production of phosphoglycerate from the combining of carbon dioxide with an acceptor molecule the reduction of phosphoglycerate into glyceraldehyde phosphate in two reactions that use ATP and NADPH produced in the light reactions the regeneration of the initial carbon dioxide
        • 6.4 explain why the Calvin cycle is now called the light independent stage of photosynthesis
        • 6.5 gather and process information to use a biochemical pathways chart to trace the steps in the Calvin cycle
      • Structure and function of ATP
        • 7.1 identify that adenosine triphosphate is an energy source for nearly all cellular metabolic processes
        • 7.2 explain that the biologically important part of the molecule contains three phosphate groups linked by high energy phosphodiester bonds
        • 7.3 outline the discovery of ATP synthesis in the mid 20th century in terms of: the discovery of photophosphorylation in chloroplasts of plants the discovery that ATP synthesis involves an electron transfer reaction occurring across a membrane
        • 7.4 gather and process information from a diagram or model of the structure of the adenosine triphosphate molecule to discuss the nature and organisation of the phosphodiester bonds between the phosphate groups
      • The structure of chloroplasts
        • 8.1 describe the structure of a chloroplast as seen under a transmission electron microscope
        • 8.2 identify the average size of a chloroplast and describe the range of sizes observed across species
        • 8.3 describe the thylakoids as flattened, hollow discs with chlorophyll dissolved in the lipid layers of the membrane
        • 8.4 describe the stroma as matrix lying within the inner membrane containing DNA, ribosomes, lipid droplets and starch granules
        • 8.5 gather and process information from secondary sources, including electron micrographs to: draw and label the structure of a chloroplast compare the size, shape and distribution of chloroplasts in a named alga, terrestrial angiosperm and aquatic angiosperm
        • 8.6 gather and process information from secondary sources to identify and explain the location of the sites of light absorption and the site of the Calvin cycle
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